Hellenistic philosophy is Ancient Greek philosophy corresponding to the Hellenistic period in Ancient Greece, from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The dominant schools of this period were the Stoics, the Epicureans and the Skeptics.
Background
The Preceding classical period in Ancient Greek philosophy had centered around
Socrates (c. 470–399 BC), whose students
Antisthenes,
Aristippus, and
Plato went on to found Cynicism,
Cyrenaicism, and
Platonism, respectively. Plato taught
Aristotle who created the
Peripateticism school and in turn, had tutored Alexander the Great. Socrates' thought was therefore influential for many of these schools of the period, leading them to focus on
ethics and how to reach
eudaimonia.
Early Platonism, known as the "Old Academy" begins with Plato, followed by Speusippus (Plato's nephew), who succeeded him as the head of school (until 339 BC), and Xenocrates (until 313 BC). Both of them sought to fuse Pythagoreanism speculations on number with Plato's theory of forms. The Peripatetic school was composed of philosophers who maintained and developed the philosophy of Aristotle after his death, beginning with Theophrastus (371–287 BC) and Strato of Lampsacus (335–269 BC). They advocated examination of the world to understand the ultimate foundation of things. The goal of life was the eudaimonia which originated from virtue actions, which consisted in keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little.
The Hellenistic period began with the death of Alexander and Diogenes in 323 BC, followed by the death of Aristotle the next year in 322 BC. While the classical thinkers were mostly based in Athens, at end of the Hellenistic period philosophers relocated at Rome or Alexandria. The shift followed Rome's military victories from the middle of the second century. Sulla's capture of Athens in 87 led to destructions and the shipping of Aristotle's manuscripts to Rome. The end of the Hellenistic period does not correspond with anything philosophical but gradually during the Roman Empire the predominance of Ancient Roman philosophy becomes perceptible. According to A. C. Grayling, the greater insecurity and loss of autonomy of the era drove some to use philosophy as a means to seek inner security from the external world. This interest in using philosophy to improve life was captured in Epicurus' claim that "empty are the words of that philosopher who offers therapy for no human suffering".
Socratic schools
Many of the Socratic schools founded prior to the Hellenistic period continued to exert influence well into it, including the Cynic, Cyrenaic and Megarian school.
Cynics
Cynicism, as begun with Antisthenes, followed by
Diogenes and Crates of Thebes, advocated purposefully living an
Asceticism life with only bare necessities in accordance with
physis, rejecting all "unnatural pleasures" that were associated with society or its material benefits. Pleasures provided by nature (which would be immediately accessible) were acceptable, however. Crates hence claimed that "Philosophy is a quart of beans and to care for nothing". Stoicism would be based on the ethical ideas of the Cynics.
Cyrenaics
The
Cyrenaics, beginning with Aristippus the Younger, the grandson of the founder, argued that the reason pleasure was good was that it was evident in human behavior from the youngest age, because this made it natural and
Natural law (the so-called
cradle argument). The Cyrenaics also believed that present pleasure freed one from anxiety of the future and regrets of the past, leaving one at peace of mind. These ideas were taken further by
Anniceris (fl. 300 BC), who expanded pleasure to include things like friendship and honour. Theodorus (c. 340–250) disagreed with this, and instead argued that social ties should be cut and self-sufficiency be espoused instead. Hegesias of Cyrene (fl. 290) on the other hand claimed that life could ultimately not be overall pleasurable.
Dialectical school
The dialectical school was known for their study of
paradoxes,
dialectic, and propositional logic.
The main philosophers associated with this school were
Diodorus Cronus and Philo the Logician Besides studying logical puzzles and paradoxes, the Dialecticians made two important logical innovations, by re-examining
modal logic, and by starting an important debate on the nature of conditional statements.
[* ] Through their development of propositional logic, the Dialectical school played an important role in the development of logic, which was an important precursor of
Stoic logic.
Stoicism
Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium in the 3rd century BC, asserting that the goal of life was to live in accordance with
Nature. It advocated the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive
emotions. The name
Stoicism derives from the
Stoa Poikile (
Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted porch", a
colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of the Agora in
Athens where Zeno of Citium and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas.
Zeno's most influential follower was
Chrysippus, who followed him as leader of the school after
Cleanthes, and was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism.
The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of
logos,
physis, and
ethics.
Stoic logic
Chrysippus, the third head of the school, developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic (see:
Syllogism). The Stoics held that all
(ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are
Matter.
[Jacques Brunschwig, Stoic Metaphysics in The Cambridge Companion to Stoics, ed. B. Inwood, Cambridge, 2006, pp. 206–32] Besides the existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.
[Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos 10.218. (chronos, topos, kenon, lekton)] They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.
[Marcelo D. Boeri, The Stoics on Bodies and Incorporeals, The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54, No. 4 (Jun., 2001), pp. 723–52] Thus, they accepted
Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus, if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object.
The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[ VII.49] The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion ( doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction ( katalepsis). certainty and true knowledge ( episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind.
Stoic physics
According to the Stoics, the
Universe is a material
Reason (
logos), which was divided into two classes: the active and the passive.
The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion".
[Seneca, Epistles, lxv. 2.] The active substance is an intelligent aether or primordial
fire, which acts on the passive matter. Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The
of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate. Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the
seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".
[Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 21.] Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to
Natural law. Similarly,
space and the
Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("
Ekpyrosis",
conflagration) and
Palingenesis,
[Michael Lapidge, Stoic Cosmology, in: John M. Rist, The Stoics, Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 182–83.] and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all
existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying (see also
Eternal return).
Stoic passions
The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control. One must therefore strive to be free of the
Stoic passions. For the Stoics, reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things.
For the Stoics, passions are evaluative judgements;
[ Groenendijk, Leendert F. and de Ruyter, Doret J.(2009) 'Learning from Seneca: a Stoic perspective on the art of living and education', Ethics and Education, 4: 1, 81–92 ] A person experiencing such an emotion has incorrectly valued an indifferent thing.
a fault of judgement, some false notion of good or evil, lies at the root of each passion.
Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives rise to delight (hēdonē), while lust (epithumia) is a wrong estimate about the future.
Unreal imaginings of evil cause distress (lupē) about the present, or fear (phobos) for the future.
The ideal Stoic would instead measure things at their real value,
and see that the passions are not natural.
To be free of the passions is to have a happiness which is self-contained.
There would be nothing to fear—for unreason is the only evil; no cause for anger—for others cannot harm you.
The wise person ( sophos) is someone who is free from the passions ( apatheia). Instead the sage experiences good-feelings ( eupatheia) which are clear-headed.
Epicureanism
Epicureanism was founded by Epicurus in the 3rd century BC.
Atoms and void
Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void.
Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight.
The Epicureans believed that atoms were unchanging because the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species,
but that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.
Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void.
Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer.
Truth of sense-perception
The
epistemology of the Epicureans was
Empiricism, with knowledge being ultimately sourced from the senses. Epicurus argued that sensory information is never false, though it may be misleading sometimes, and that "If you fight against all sensations, you will not have a standard against to which judge even those of them you say are mistaken". He responded to an objection to empiricism made by
Plato in
Meno, according to which one cannot search for information without having some pre-existing idea of what to search for, hence meaning that knowledge must precede experience. The Epicurean response is that
prolepsis (preconceptions) are general concepts which allow particular things to be recognised, and that these emerge from repeated experiences of similar things. When we form judgments about things (
hupolepsis), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information.
For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.
Pleasure
Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values, seeing pleasure as the chief good in life.
Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.
Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary, desire that should be generally avoided.
Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged.
Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and
Death anxiety, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life.
Skepticism
Greek philosophical skepticism, as a distinct philosophical movement, began with Pyrrho of Elis and Timon of Phlius in the 3rd century BC.
Academic skepticism
Following the death of Timon of Phlius, When the Platonic Academy became the primary advocate of skepticism dating from around 266 BC,
Arcesilaus became its head, until the mid-first century BCE. While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho, it grew more and more dogmatic until
Aenesidemus, in the first century BCE, broke with the Academic skeptics and adopted Pyrrhonism, denouncing the Academy as "
Stoicism fighting against Stoics." The Academic skeptics maintained that
acatalepsia. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of truth-likeness, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the
Stoics and on the Stoic
dogma that
Katalepsis led to true
episteme. The most important Academics were
Arcesilaus,
Carneades, and Philo of Larissa. The most extensive ancient source of information about Academic skepticism is
Academica, written by the Academic skeptic philosopher
Cicero.
Middle Academy
While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of
ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective. The Academics focused on criticizing the
of other schools of philosophy, in particular of the dogmatism of the
Stoics.
They acknowledged some vestiges of a moral law within, at best but a plausible guide, the possession of which, however, formed the real distinction between the sage and the fool.
Slight as the difference may appear between the positions of the Academics and the Pyrrhonists, a comparison of their lives leads to the conclusion that a practical philosophical moderation was the characteristic of the Academics
whereas the objectives of the Pyrrhonists were more psychological.
The Academics did not doubt the existence of truth; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it.[ Phaedo, 64–67] in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.
The doctrines of Arcesilaus, which must be gathered from the writings of others,[Cicero, Acad. i. 12, iv. 24; De Orat. iii. 18; Diogenes Laertius iv. 28; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. vii. 150, Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 233] represent an attack on the Stoic katalepsis (criterion) and are based on the skepticism which was latent in the later writings of Plato.
New Academy
The next stage in Academic skepticism was the moderate skepticism of
Carneades, which he said owed its existence to his opposition to
Chrysippus.
To the Stoic theory of perception, the
phantasia kataleptike, by which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he proposed the doctrine of
acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence between
and the objects perceived.
All our sensations are relative, and acquaint us, not with things as they are, but only with the impressions that things produce upon us. Experience, he said, clearly shows that there is no true impression. There is no notion that may not deceive us; it is impossible to distinguish between false and true impressions; therefore the Stoic
phantasia kataleptike must be given up. There is no phantasia kataleptike ("criterion") of truth. Carneades also assailed
Stoic physics. In answer to the doctrine of final cause, of design in nature, he pointed to those things which cause destruction and danger to man, to the
evil committed by men endowed with reason, to the miserable condition of humanity, and to the misfortunes that assail the good man. There is, he concluded, no evidence for the doctrine of a divine superintending providence. Even if there were orderly connexion of parts in the
universe, this may have resulted quite naturally. No proof can be advanced to show that this world is anything but the product of natural forces.
Knowledge being impossible, a wise man should practice epoche (suspension of judgment).
By the time of Philo of Larissa, we find a tendency not only to reconcile the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to connect it with parallel systems of thought.
Pyrrhonist revival
Pyrrhonism was revived by
Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC. Its objective is
ataraxia (being mentally unperturbed), which is achieved through epoché (i.e. suspension of judgment) about non-evident matters (i.e., matters of
belief). It is unclear from the surviving evidence how much of its doctrines comprise a revival of older doctrines rather than a development of new ones. Pyrrhonists dispute that the dogmatists – which includes all of Pyrrhonism's rival philosophies – have found
truth regarding non-evident matters. For any non-evident matter, a Pyrrhonist makes arguments for and against such that the matter cannot be concluded, thus suspending belief and thereby inducing ataraxia.
Although Pyrrhonism's objective is ataraxia, it is best known for its Epistemology arguments, particularly the problem of the criterion, and for being the first Western school of philosophy to identify the problem of induction and the Münchhausen trilemma. Pyrrhonists (or Pyrrhonist practice) can be subdivided into those who are ephectics (engaged in suspension of judgment), zetetic (engaged in seeking), or aporia (engaged in refutation).
Later schools
Middle Platonism
Around 90 BC, Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, making way for the period known as
Middle Platonism, in which Platonism was fused with certain Peripatetic and many
Stoicism . In Middle Platonism, the Platonic Forms were not transcendent but immanent to rational minds, and the physical world was a living, ensouled being, the
Anima mundi. The eclectic nature of Platonism during this time is shown by its incorporation into
Pythagoreanism (Numenius of Apamea) and into Jewish philosophy
(Philo of Alexandria)
Hellenistic Judaism
Hellenistic Judaism was an attempt to establish the
Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. Its principal representative was Philo of Alexandria.(30 BC – 45 AD)
Neopythagoreanism
Pythagoreanism views were revived by
Nigidius Figulus during the Hellenistic period, when pseudo-pythagorean writings began circulating.
[ The Pythagorean Texts of the Hellenistic Period, Collected and Edited by Holger Thesleff, Acta Acedemias Aboensis, Ser. A. Humaniora. Humanistiska Vetenskaper. Socialvetenskaper. Teologi. Vol. 30 nr I. Paperback – January 1, 1965] Eventually in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD Neopythagoreanism came to be recognized.
See also
Notes
Further reading
-
Kelly Arenson (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Hellenistic Philosophy, London 2020
-
Keimpe Algra et al., The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
-
Giovanni Reale, The Systems of the Hellenistic Age: History of Ancient Philosophy (Suny Series in Philosophy), edited and translated from Italian by John R. Catan, Albany, State of New York University Press, 1985, .
External links
